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The Evolution of Computing and its Impact on History

The Evolution of Computing and its Impact on History

Monthly Archives: October 2011

Wednesday 10/12: Cryptography

13 Thursday Oct 2011

Posted by Nathan Hinkle in Class Summary

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Class started with a reminder that homework assignment #2 is due Monday, and due Wednesday a selection from the IEEE archives for the final project.

The anonymous self-written tests from our previous class were discussed, and praised for their depth and insights. We expanded on an answer to “why did Hollerith use punched cards instead of tape”, noting that cards could be resorted and accessed randomly, while tape constrains one to always reading data in a particular order. This is analogous to the difference today between “random access” and “serial access”.

RMS LusitaniaNext, we went back in time to World War I. In May 1915, the RMS Lusitania, a British merchant ship with many American citizens aboard, was sunk by German U-boats. This was before America had entered World War I. Germany was starting to flex its naval muscles with its U-boat fleet. In 1917, Germany sent the famous Zimmerman Telegram to its ambassador in Mexico, seeking to form an alliance with Mexico. Germany would assist Mexico in reclaiming former Mexican territory including Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona; in return, Mexico would form an alliance with Germany, attacking the United States to prevent them from engaging Germany in Europe. British intelligence intercepted the note during its initial transmission, and it was decoded by their cryptographers. The note was published in American newspapers, purporting that it had been intercepted by spies when the note was in (unencrypted) transmission via telegram across Mexico. The revealing of this information prompted America’s entrance to the war. It wasn’t until 1923 however that Churchill admitted that British cryptographers had in fact intercepted and decoded the message – throughout the war, the Germans had no idea that their private communications were being intercepted.

Enigma machine in use

An enigma machine being used in Russia. - German Federal Archives, via Wikimedia Commons

This dramatic breach of security for the Germans led to the development of the enigma machine. Over 30,000 of the machines were built during the course of World War II. The mechanisms of this machine were the subject of our reading for today, an excerpt from The Code Book.


To get a better sense for how the enigma machine operates, we used paper enigma simulators to decode a secret message on the board: MPXNCZJA. The scramblers were arranged in order of 1-2-3, and the day’s key was MCX. Recall that the first three letters are the message key, leaving NCZJA as the message. Decoding the message and taking it to the honors college office was rewarded with a prize.

We wrapped up our discussion by reflecting on what ultimately led to the failure of the system: not the encryption itself, but its human users. The use of repeated, predictable phrases, easy-to-guess message keys, and other patterns to exploit led to the messages being decrypted far faster than they would have been if better practices had been followed. As with many security systems, the weakest link in the chain of security is not the system itself, but those who must operate it.

Ada Lovelace Day

10 Monday Oct 2011

Posted by Kiri Wagstaff in Ada Lovelace Day, News

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Ada Lovelace Day took place on Friday, October 7. The theme this year is “heroines”:

So share your story about a woman — whether an engineer, a scientist, a technologist or mathematician — who has inspired you to become who you are today.

You can read others’ stories or even contribute your own (it’s not too late!).

Class Summary 10/10: Hollerith and the Census

10 Monday Oct 2011

Posted by Jenelle Parson in Class Summary

≈ 1 Comment

In class today we talked about the results from the survey passed out during last class. It was found that people liked the concept map as well as learning about Ada and Babbage’s relationship. It was also found that people were unclear on how the analytical machine and other machines worked. Dr. Wagstaff encouraged us, if we were interested, to consider doing our final project on it, so that we may explain how it works to the class. Also, people were unclear on how much work Ada actually did on the notes and how much Babbage helped her. The fact is that we’re really not sure how much she did and probably never will. Also, the vast majority thought that the class work was about right at the moment. However, Dr. Wagstaff has decided to drop one of the assignments, so that we have two weeks to do each assignment.

In class, we had an activity where we wrote two questions that we would put on a “quiz” about the reading from last time. The first one being a “how” question and the second being a “why” questions. The questions were passed around and each person had to write down the answered and then the answers were passed around and “graded”. We then discussed things that we found interesting about the questions and answers.

  1. How did Hollerith’s machine get and store data?

1890 punch-card template for Pantograph

Punched cards were used to input data. These were put in the machine which interpreted them. We thought that it was interesting that the machine had constraints on what would be considered valid data. These constraints included that cards could only be put in one way. This was done by making one of the corners of the card cut at an angle. This way the card could only be putting the reader one way. Another restraint was that the card was considered invalid if two mutually exclusive things were entered. So for example if male and female were selected the card was considered invalid. Also, if the user was only looking at one type of cards (males for instance) if another type of cards (females for example) was inputted it would be tossed out.

Woman operating a Pantograph

Cards were punched through a pantograph, which was basically a template through which holes were punched. The machine was composed of a tabulator and a sorter. Click here for some good images of the machine. The tabulator counted up everything by lowering down a tray with pins attached to it; if there were was a hole where the pin was it would go through the hole into a cup of liquid mercury. The mercury acted as a very good conductor and would make an electrical current. Part of the reason mercury was used is that the whole device was hooked up to a battery (they didn’t have a power grid during this time), so the voltage across the device was very poor. The sorter flipped open the bin to put in the card, but someone still had to manually put each card in the sorter.

2. Why was it necessary for Hollerith to make this machine

With the 1890 census it would not be able to finish the census before the next census (in 10 years). The 1880 one took 7 years to complete and there were more people in 1890 than 1880. For the 1890 census there was a race to see what method/machine could do the best, which would be used for the next census. One was Hollerith’s machine, one was a chip method which used different colored paper, and one was the slip method which used different colored ink. They had a race in which they had to process 10,000 cards. The chip method took 110.933 hours for transcription and 44.683 hours for tabulation, the slip method took 144.4167 hours for transcription and 55.367 hours for tabulation, and Hollerith’s method took 72.45 hours for transcription and 5.467 hours for tabulation. So, that makes Hollerith’s method a little over twice as fast as the chip method and a little over two and a half times as fast as the slip method.

We talked also about how single-minded Hollerith was. Hollerith only thought of one use for his machine: the census, and didn’t consider his machine’s usefulness for other scenarios, such as other data entry.

Next we went through an activity to see how long it would take for our hometown’s census to be processed back in the day. With Hollerith’s machine it took 25 seconds/person for transcription and 2 seconds/person for tabulation.

Example for my hometown: Sherwood, OR

Population 18,194

Transcription=25*18194=4.55E5 seconds=7.58E3 minutes=1.26E2 hours=5.26 days

Tabulation=2*18194=3.64E4 seconds=6.065E2 minutes=10.1 hours

Total=1.36E2 hours=5.67 days

We then talked about why the US was able to set up new things like the machine for the census, when Europe had just kept with people doing the census. One of the reasons is that the US had just gotten out of the civil war and was really far behind Europe, so the US was open to innovation. Another reason was that it would theoretically save time and money. However, for the years it saved the census, they spent it doing even further analysis on it! In the end, they ended up spending twice as much money as the 1880 census!

Images from: http://www.columbia.edu/cu/computinghistory/census-tabulator.html

Ada Lovelace

06 Thursday Oct 2011

Posted by Manali Paralkar in Class Summary

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Today Dr. Wagstaff reminded the class to make sure and use MLA or APA format when citing anything.
We started the class with a discussion of whether or not Charles Babbage a success or a failure. Although he did not succeed in building the complete Difference Engine or any of the Analytical Engine, there was a general consensus that Babbage was not a failure. He was mostly successful and had great ideas for the time period. Also, he was constrained by the times.
We next started talking about Ada Lovelace. She was christened Augusta Ada Byron. She later became Augusta Ada King after marrying Lord William King, and then a couple of years later turned into the Countess of Lovelace when Lord King became Count Lovelace. Her mother was Annabella Byron and her father was Lord Byron, a romantic poet. Annabella wanted Ada to have an education just like she had. Ada was very intellectual and liked to learn. She was lucky to get a good education in that time period. She met Babbage at a soiree at his house when she was 17. They became fast friends regardless of the age difference between them.
Ada was doing a lot of translation of Menabrea’s paper on the Analytical Engine and then wrote her Notes. Her Notes were added commentary and analysis along with the translation. At one point, there was disagreement between them where Babbage thought that she should cancel the Translation and the Notes and just write her own paper. Babbage was offended that she did not agree and that she did not attach his “rant” to the publication. She realized that the rant would “detract from the main point of the article.” Ada wanted to also include the Bernoulli Numbers as a concrete example for how the Analytical Engine would work. She was one of the first people to recognize a conditional example. In her personal life, she had three children. She was disappointed that her husband was not an intellectual but he provided her with a comfortable life. Count Lovelace was okay with all the time she spent with Babbage and with her work on the Notes and mathematical equations.
After talking about Ada Lovelace, we created a diagram of the different inventions and of their influence on each other. For example Multiplication influenced both the Pascaline and the Napier’s Rods, both of which influenced the Calculating Clock.

RIP Steve Jobs

06 Thursday Oct 2011

Posted by Nathan Hinkle in People

≈ 1 Comment

Most of you have probably already heard this news, but I think it’s worth mentioning in the context of this class. Steve Jobs has been very influential in making computers accessible to non-technical users, improving user interface, and bringing computing to mobile devices. He passed away Wednesday morning at age 56. Though I’m not personally an Apple user, I deeply respect Steve Jobs for the tremendous impacts he has made on the evolution of personal computing. Rest in peace.

RIP Steve Jobs: 1955-2011

Class Summary 10/3: Babbage

04 Tuesday Oct 2011

Posted by Austin Sharp in Class Summary

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Class began with Dr. Wagstaff telling us a bit more about herself. She grew up in a small town near Moab, Utah. Her undergraduate degree was in computer science at University of Utah; she followed that up with a graduate degree in computer science with a minor in Mars from Cornell University, and then worked in algorithm development for space programs at Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Lab and finally JPL.

Dr. Wagstaff then directed us to the two following puzzles:
2, 6, 12, 20, 30, ?? = 42 = x^2+x
-3, 0, 15, 48, 105, ?? = 192 = x^3-4x

The easiest method to solve these puzzles was the one employed by Babbage’s Difference Engine No. 2: the first puzzle had a constant difference of differences (2) between each number, and the second puzzle had a constant difference of difference of differences (6). Each of these corresponded to a polynomial equation of the kind that the Difference Engine could solve. A crucial point was that in Babbage’s day, it was essential to have accurate tables of polynomials, logarithms and trigonometric functions for all kinds of calculations theoretical and practical, navigation, et cetera. This was the reason for Babbage including printing on paper and printing of plaster molds in his machine – so that the tables would never need to be copied by a human, and thus would remain reliable.

Another effect of Babbage’s desire for reliability was his demand for high quality machined parts. We discussed his disagreements with his engineer, Joseph Clement, and how most of the British government’s grant money likely ended up in the engineer’s pockets. Also mentioned was Babbage’s inability to be diplomatic, as related even in his autobiography – his funding dried up as he could not convince government officials such as the Chancellor of the Exchequer of the important of his machines. A side note to this was that a Swedish engineer, Per Georg Schultz, created a derivative Difference Engine for several governments – Sweden, England and eventually the United States. His engine was delivered over-budget but on time.

Babbage’s Difference Engine No. 2 was not fully completed until recently. We saw a video that detailed the course of his endeavors, from the first difference engine, and the analytical engine, to the complete and improved plans for the second difference engine. Most interestingly, this video featured many shots of the replica Difference Engine No. 2 in action.

Babbage’s Analytical Engine, however, has never been fully realized. The same video showed the ‘mill’ of the Analytical Engine, which Babbage’s son eventually completed. The mill was to be the area in which computations were done, as opposed to the ‘store’ of memory.

photo credit: http://www.zdnet.co.uk/i/z5/illo/nw/story_graphics/11mar/science-museum/science-museum-babbage.jpg

The Analytical Engine also incorporated three kinds of punched cards – operations, numbers, and variables (which were essentially addresses). This engine has never been completed, but a group at http://plan28.org/ is taking the first steps towards building it.

Class ended with a question to ponder: was Charles Babbage a success or a failure?

There and back again

03 Monday Oct 2011

Posted by Andrew Atkinson in Personal History

≈ 1 Comment

When I was eight, my grandfather got a new iMac 3g, the Bondi Blue, complete with hockey-puck mouse and the wonderful game Lemmings. Whenever I visited I would play the game and learn how to use the computer. Soon after, my father got a PC for my two brothers and I to share. Learning both operating systems simultaneously, I remember finding Windows easier and more intuitive than the Macintosh (no longer the case). On our PC, we brothers would play games like Diablo, Myst, and Doom. As the youngest, I usually watched, but sometimes got the special job of managing the potions or spell book during tough fights. I continued to be an avid gamer, and kept learning and loving computers.

When first trying to figure out the internet, I remember hearing the AOL voice say, “You’ve got mail!”. Amazed by the computer’s knowledge, I went out to check the mailbox. There was no mail, and I never trusted AOL again.

I eventually did learn about email though, a few years later, with my first Hotmail account. I was twelve, so I really didn’t care about my inbox or messages. But my account gave me access to all sorts of great free games on MSN. My favorite was online chess. Chess was already my favorite game, and being able to play it online with thousands of real people was incredible. I could practice more effectively and play all the time! With my computer to help me train, I went on to win several local chess tournaments and even compete in the nationals. Over the years I lost my ability to run a strong Queen’s Gambit, but my love and skill for computers only grew, and continued to help me.

Throughout elementary and middle school, I felt that my computer-savvyness gave me a big advantage. I could do better research online, type papers instead of write them, and solve the problems of my tech-foreign teachers. I learned how to use computers to make art, get news, and type to friends in real time. I even figured out a way to use the internet to get free music! It was the beginning of a beautiful friendship.

In High school I got Adobe CS3, and began doing animation in Flash, web design with Dreamweaver, and art in Photoshop. As a filmmaker, I also used Adobe’s Premiere Pro and After Effects. I used computers for everything and knew a lot about them.  But it wasn’t until OSU that I learned how to program. A civil engineering major at first, I decided to take a computer science class; I changed my major to CS a few weeks later. I loved it immediately, and had no doubt that it was the field for me. That was two years ago. It’s going great, and I have a couple more years to go. One thing I find myself always learning is that I hardly know anything. I went from a sophisticated computer user to an amateur computer scientist. I’m constantly amazed by the enormity and evolution of the discipline, and admittedly daunted by the fact that it is growing much faster than I can hope to learn it! But I will keep trying, and keep looking forward to what I will be able to do with computers in the future.

Speeding through the series of tubes

03 Monday Oct 2011

Posted by Nathan Hinkle in Personal History

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My Personal Computing History

The first time I ever used a computer was in first grade, sitting in the back of our classroom at the row of then-new, now-ancient Apple Macintoshes. While most of my classmates seemed enthralled by video games, I was already looking for more “productive” uses. My aunt was one of the few people my family knew with a computer and “The Internet”, so I would send her emails from the school computer. I was fascinated by the ability to send messages such long distances so quickly. I still hadn’t quite grasped the concept of The Web, but was already learning to value electronic communication.

Macintosh PowerPC

The first computers I used were PowerPCs like this one

We got our first computer when I was in about second grade. I went with my dad to browse the options at a local store. Nowadays I make all of the technology decisions in the house, but at that point I was just tagging along for fun. We ended up with a Compaq beige box, loaded with Windows 98 and Microsoft Works. With 32 MB of RAM, a 5 GB hard drive, and a 360 MHz processor, it wasn’t anything to write home about, but was enough to write emails. I didn’t really use the computer much at all for the first few years. My dad cajoled me into learning to type with JumpStart Typing for Kids, the first video game (of sorts) that I ever played. I thought it was incredibly lame, and quickly figured out that you didn’t have to type accurately to win the “free-form typing mode” challenges which let you level-up, you just had to type fast. By holding down the a key long enough, I could win every level. While the game didn’t really serve its intended purpose, I suppose it still provoked me to use some creative thinking skills.

The home screen for the JumpStart Typing game

When I got to middle school, I started to develop a real interest in computers. I quickly became the go-to person for fixing problems, and got my first taste of programming with a lego robotics class. We got our first good computer when my grandparents bought us a Dell Dimension for Christmas. Over the years I’ve upgraded it several times, but it’s still humming along as our primary home computer, and runs Windows 7 smoothly on its Pentium 4 HT. In high school, I finally got my own laptop. With my new-found freedom and the seemingly undefeatable speed of a dual-core processor and a whole gigabyte of RAM!!!, I took off exploring how to put my shiny new machine to use. Today, my desktop computer has a whopping 24 GB of RAM, four times as much as our first computer’s hard drive space, and can chew through anything I throw at it. One has to wonder where it will end. If I have kids some day, what will their first computer look like? Will it be a small device with nearly infinite resources? Or will everyone be using tablets with less physical capacity, and everything running remotely from the cloud?

The impacts of computers on Me aren’t just about Me

Wikipedia LogoOne of the biggest ways that computers and the internet in particular have influenced me is with the ability to collaborate with, meet, and learn from other people. I had my first experience with online forums while trying to figure out how to modify the login screen on my laptop. After getting my question figured out, I ended up sticking around and learning more about computers than I had anywhere else previously. I spent some time editing on Wikipedia, before getting tired of the intense bureaucracy there. Super UserThe site I’ve been the most involved with is the Stack Exchange network. Founded as the programming site Stack Overflow, it’s now grown to encompass everything from English Language to Gardening. Stack Exchange is a Q&A platform, and addresses many of the shortcomings of traditional computer forums. I’m most involved on the computers site in the network, Super User. The system runs on a slightly addictive incentives system with “reputation points” (I’m wont to admit that I’ve got over 12000 of them now). Unlike other sites though, the points mean something – increased reputation unlocks various privileges, which allows for community moderation, from editing to closing posts to even deleting questions. Profile for nhinkle on Super UserMost moderation is done by regular users, although there are a handful of community moderators. In another unique twist, moderators are elected by a democratic voting system, not appointed by site admins. I was elected to be a moderator this spring, and am still actively involved on the site. In an increasingly interconnected world, it’s important to recognize the worldviews, lifestyles, and perspectives of people from other cultures. I talk with a programmer in the Netherlands. I read essays from students researching biodiesel in Brazil. I’ve made friends with a deaf diabetic from the midwest. The internet was founded on the basis of spreading knowledge and connecting the world, and I feel privileged to have taken a part in that experience.

Elf Bowling and SimCity 2000: My History of Computing

01 Saturday Oct 2011

Posted by John Diebold in Personal History

≈ 3 Comments

My family’s first computer was a Dell that ran Windows 95. This computer was given to us by my uncle, who is a computer programmer. The computer was several years old by that point, and he was already using a newer model. My uncle lived several hundred miles away at the time, so the computer was shipped to us. I was five years old at the time, and I couldn’t wait to get the box opened. Until that point, my only experience with computers had been at the public library. At the library there were several computers in the children’s section, and I had seen other kids playing games like Reader Rabbit on them. However, my mom had always forbade me from playing on the computers. It was her belief that the library was for reading books, not playing games.

Once my dad got the computer set up and showed me how it worked, I began trying out the many programs that had been installed on it. Luckily for me, my uncle had a daughter a few years older than me, so there were already several games installed on the computer. My favorite game quickly became Elf Bowling, a relatively simple game in which the player was Santa Claus and the bowling pins were elves. Even though it was a simple game, my mom only let me play on the computer for a few minutes each day, so it never got old. After having the computer for a couple years, I discovered a game called SimCity 2000 which quickly replaced Elf Bowling as my favorite game. It was a city building simulation game, the point of which was to improve a city by building roads and zoning land. However, I mostly just tried to destroy cities by doing things like setting them on fire, which was a lot of fun.

Computers have been influencing me ever since my days of playing games on Windows 95. When I was a freshman in high school, I joined my schools robotics team. I was on the mechanical team, and I enjoyed designing and building parts of the robot. I especially enjoyed working on the drive train of the robot. The first year I was on the team, we did all of our design on paper and made all of the parts manually. While this worked fine for most of the robot, there were certain parts that required a higher degree of accuracy to function well. One of these was the drive train of the robot. It was extremely difficult and frustrating trying to get the chain, sprockets, and wheels to all line up because some of the holes we had drilled were not in the exact position that they should have been.

My second year on the team, we started designing some of the robot on the computer program SolidWorks, a 3D CAD program. We were then able to send our designs to a CNC machine, which is basically a computerized milling machine. This allowed us to create very precise pieces which made working on the drive train much more enjoyable. Our robot also performed much better in the competition than it had the previous year. This experience of designing parts on CAD and having them machined very precisely by a CNC Machine is one of the main reasons I chose to study Mechanical Engineering at Oregon State. SolidWorks is the CAD program used at Oregon State, and I am looking forward to using it and other CAD programs at OSU and after I graduate.

Pictures:

Elf Bowling: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Elfbowling.png

SimCity 2000: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sc2kscr.png

SolidWorks: http://www.sycode.com/products/3dm_import_sw/images/3dm_import_sw.gif

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